Research
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa)
41 peer-reviewed studies curated from PubMed and Semantic Scholar.
Studies
Sorted by quality and recency
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Use Among Poly-Drug Users in Southeast Asia: A Systematic Review.
Systematic review of nine cross-sectional studies on kratom use among poly-drug users in Southeast Asia. Kratom is used as an affordable substitute for opiates and amphetamines, to self-manage substance use disorder, decrease drug intake, alleviate withdrawal, and for rejuvenating effects. No significant health issues were associated with co-consumption.
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) Use and Mental Health: A Systematic Review and Multilevel Meta-Analysis.
This systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis examined the association between kratom use and mental health indicators. The study found a very small positive association between kratom use and negative mental health indicators, and no significant association with positive mental health indicators. Kratom use showed a small positive correlation with externalizing disorders, but no significant association with quality of life or internalizing disorders.
Qualitative content analysis of public responses to an FDA inquiry on the impact of scheduling changes to kratom.
The study conducted a qualitative content analysis of public responses to an FDA inquiry on kratom, analyzing 6,353 comments. Respondents reported using kratom for mental health, pain management, substance use disorder, focus, insomnia, and fatigue, with few reports of recreational use or adverse effects. The study highlights public perceptions of kratom's therapeutic uses and potential regulatory implications.
Kratom as an opioid alternative: harm, or harm reduction? A systematic review of literature.
Systematic review of literature on kratom and its alkaloids as opioid substitutes. The review includes 16 preclinical studies, 25 case reports, and 10 observational studies. Findings suggest kratom alkaloids act on opioid receptors and may mitigate opioid withdrawal, but concerns about addiction and toxicity remain. No controlled human clinical trials reported, and evidence is insufficient to draw conclusions on safety and efficacy.
A systematic review of (pre)clinical studies on the therapeutic potential and safety profile of kratom in humans.
Systematic review of preclinical and clinical studies on kratom's therapeutic potential and safety profile. Preclinical studies suggest therapeutic value for pain and withdrawal, while clinical studies report reduced pain sensitivity and safety issues with chronic use. Further validation in large, controlled trials is needed.
Pharmacotherapy for Management of 'Kratom Use Disorder': A Systematic Literature Review With Survey of Experts.
Systematic literature review and expert survey on the management of kratom use disorder (KUD). The review compiles 14 reports on long-term management of KUD, highlighting the use of buprenorphine, naltrexone, and methadone with favorable outcomes. The expert survey supports the use of these pharmacological modalities for KUD management.
Outcomes of mothers and newborns to prenatal exposure to kratom: a systematic review.
Systematic review analyzing six case reports of prenatal kratom exposure. Maternal and infant withdrawal from kratom exposure was described in each case, resulting in pharmacologic treatment for both mothers and infants.
Prevalence and Use Patterns of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) in a US Nationally Representative Sample.
Cross-sectional survey of 11,545 respondents found a 9.1% prevalence of kratom use, with pills, gummies, and powder being the most common forms. Kratom was primarily used for pain relief, relaxation/stress relief, and energy boost. Benefits included increased energy and improved sleep, but adverse effects increased with higher doses.
Reported associations between kratom and seizures: a systematic review.
Systematic review examining the association between kratom use and seizures. The review included 11 studies, primarily case reports and case series, documenting self-reported kratom use with minimal quantitative toxicological data. The review concludes there is insufficient evidence to suggest kratom causes seizures due to lack of quantitative dose-response data and incomplete medical records.
Human Mitragynine and 7-Hydroxymitragynine Pharmacokinetics after Single and Multiple Daily Doses of Oral Encapsulated Dried Kratom Leaf Powder.
This study investigated the pharmacokinetics of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine in humans after single and multiple daily doses of oral encapsulated dried kratom leaf powder. Plasma concentrations of these alkaloids were measured, showing dose-proportional increases and providing guidance for future clinical kratom dosing studies.
The association between neuropsychiatric effects of substance use and occurrence of endoplasmic reticulum and unfolded protein response: A systematic review.
Systematic review assessing the association between neuropsychiatric effects of substance use and occurrence of ER stress and unfolded protein response. The review included 21 studies, revealing that substances like alcohol, methamphetamine, cocaine, opioid, and kratom contribute to neuropsychiatric effects and are associated with ER stress and UPR activation.
Treatment of Kratom Withdrawal and Dependence With Buprenorphine/Naloxone: A Case Series and Systematic Literature Review.
The study includes a systematic review and case series assessing the treatment of kratom-dependent patients with buprenorphine-naloxone. It found a strong correlation between kratom dose and the buprenorphine-naloxone dose required for treating kratom-associated opioid use disorder.
Kratom Withdrawal: A Systematic Review with Case Series.
Systematic review and case series examining kratom withdrawal, highlighting dependence, tolerance, and withdrawal symptoms. The paper discusses kratom's use for opioid withdrawal and the need for clinicians to manage kratom withdrawal similarly to opioid withdrawal.
Pharmacokinetics of mitragynine, a major analgesic alkaloid in kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): A systematic review.
This systematic review summarizes available pharmacokinetic information about mitragynine, the major indole alkaloid in kratom. It describes mitragynine's absorption, metabolism, and excretion, noting its rapid absorption and extensive metabolism. The review highlights the need for more detailed studies on metabolism and tissue redistribution.
Kratom use and mental health: A systematic review.
Systematic review of studies on kratom use and mental health from 1960 to 2017. Kratom shows potential as a harm reduction tool, particularly as an opioid substitute, and may enhance mood and relieve anxiety. However, withdrawal symptoms can be mild to severe, affecting abstinence maintenance.
An evidence-based systematic review of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) by the Natural Standard Research Collaboration.
Systematic review of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) consolidating safety and efficacy data from scientific literature. Includes analysis of clinical trials, expert opinion, history, pharmacology, interactions, adverse effects, and dosing.
Chemical Analysis and Alkaloid Intake for Kratom Products Available in the United States.
The study presents content analyses of kratom products used by US adult consumers, quantifying 10 kratom alkaloids. It found no evidence of adulteration and calculated mitragynine intake per use and per day based on self-reported data. This analysis is foundational for designing controlled clinical trials of kratom.
Kratom addiction per DSM-5 SUD criteria, and kratom physical dependence: Insights from dosing amount versus frequency.
Observational study of 395 US adult kratom consumers examining the relationship between dosing amounts/frequencies and outcomes such as acute effects, withdrawal symptoms, and kratom-use disorder (KUD) symptoms. Findings suggest that dose frequency is more closely associated with withdrawal and KUD symptoms than dose amount, with men reporting more acute effects and symptoms than women.
Ecological Momentary Assessment of Self-Reported Kratom Use, Effects, and Motivations Among US Adults
Cross-sectional study using ecological momentary assessment of 357 kratom consumers in the US. Most reported using kratom daily to relieve pain, improve mood, or increase productivity, with some using it as an opioid substitute. Frequent use was associated with tolerance, withdrawal, and craving, but not with social or functional impairment.
An exploratory study of the safety profile and neurocognitive function after single doses of mitragynine in humans.
Phase 1 study evaluating the safety profile and acute effects of mitragynine in humans. Low doses (5-10 mg) increased subjective feelings of stimulation and enhanced attention, while the highest dose (40 mg) caused feelings of amnesia and mild psychopathological symptoms. Mitragynine was well tolerated up to 40 mg.
Kratom and Pain Tolerance: A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Study.
A randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study assessed kratom's effects on pain tolerance in 26 males with a history of daily kratom use. Pain tolerance increased significantly 1 hour after kratom ingestion compared to placebo, with no withdrawal symptoms reported during discontinuation.
Kratom use among ethnobotanical tea bar patrons in Colorado: Subjective drug effects, adverse reactions, and perceived benefits of use
Observational study using surveys of 102 ethnobotanical tea bar patrons in Colorado to assess kratom use patterns, perceived benefits, and adverse reactions. Participants reported mental and physical health benefits, social enhancement, and substance use harm reduction, but also experienced gastrointestinal issues, anxiety, and withdrawal symptoms.
Kratom drinks and consumption trends: insights from Reddit
Retrospective observational study using content analysis of Reddit posts to analyze trends in kratom drink consumption. The study found an increase in interest in kratom drinks starting in mid-2022, highlighting the need for public awareness of potential risks and further research.
The Effect of Light Intensity and Polyethylene-Glycol-Induced Water Stress on the Growth, Mitragynine Accumulation, and Total Alkaloid Content of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa)
The study investigates the effects of light intensity and water stress on the growth and alkaloid content of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) using hydroponic techniques. Water potential was found to be the dominant factor affecting plant growth and alkaloid accumulation, with moderate water potential leading to the highest mitragynine accumulation. Leaf age and thickness were also associated with alkaloid levels.
Enzymatic epimerization of monoterpene indole alkaloids in kratom
The paper reports on the enzymatic epimerization of monoterpene indole alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), focusing on the biosynthesis of 3R-MIAs. It identifies the iminium species (20S)-3-dehydrocorynantheidine and the oxidase/reductase pair responsible for the isomerization of 3S to 3R, suggesting a pathway for the formation of pharmacologically active spirooxindole alkaloids.
Higher accumulation of mitragynine in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) leaves affected by insect attack
The study investigated the effect of insect herbivory on the secondary metabolites of kratom leaves, focusing on the accumulation of mitragynine. It found that insect attacks led to higher mitragynine levels as a defense mechanism, with a correlation between increased mitragynine and elevated leaf acidity. The study suggests managing insect herbivory to modulate alkaloid accumulation in kratom.
At least four groups of kratom consumers in the United States: latent-class analysis of motivations for kratom use
The study used latent-class analysis to identify subgroups of kratom consumers based on their motivations for use. Four classes were identified: self-treatment for chronic pain, long-term replacement for other substances, management of anxiety and depressive symptoms, and recreational use. The study highlights the diverse motivations for kratom use among consumers.
Serotonin release mediates analgesia via opioidergic system and withdrawal symptoms in chronic kratom extract-treated mice
The study investigates the role of serotonin in kratom-induced analgesia and withdrawal symptoms in mice. Kratom alkaloid extract produced analgesic effects comparable to morphine, mediated by MOR activation and increased serotonin transmission. Kratom extracts also resulted in less severe withdrawal symptoms compared to morphine, with increased serotonin and dopamine levels contributing to these effects.
Kratom leaf extracts exert hypolipidaemic effects via the modulation of PCSK9 and LDLR pathways in HepG2 cells
The study investigated the hypolipidaemic effects of kratom leaf extracts on HepG2 cells, focusing on LDLR and PCSK9 expression. Kratom extracts increased LDLR protein expression and decreased PCSK9 expression, suggesting potential for ameliorating hypercholesterolemia.
Formulation and Physical Evaluation of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Leaf Extract Emulgel as Analgesic in Mice (Mus musculus)
The study evaluated the analgesic effectiveness of kratom leaf extract emulgel applied topically in mice. Emulgels with 11.6% and 17.6% extract concentrations showed optimal analgesic effects, reducing pain responses significantly.
IDENTIFICATION OF LC-MS/MS AND DOCKING ANALYSIS OF TOPOISOMERASE IIΑ INHIBITION FROM KRATOM LEAVES (MITRAGYNA SPECIOSA) AS POTENTIAL ANTICANCER AGENTS
The study used LC-MS/MS to identify metabolites in kratom leaves and predicted their activity to inhibit topoisomerase IIα using molecular docking. Rutin, 5(S)-5-carboxystrictosidine, and procyanidin showed the highest affinity for inhibition, suggesting potential anticancer activity.
Dual anti-inflammatory activities of COX-2/5-LOX driven by kratom alkaloid extracts in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 cells
The study investigates the anti-inflammatory effects of kratom alkaloid extracts, particularly mitragynine, on COX-2/5-LOX enzymes in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. The alkaloid extract showed dual inhibition activity towards these enzymes and reduced several inflammation parameters, suggesting potential as a safer NSAID.
A Novel Mitragynine Analog with Low-Efficacy Mu Opioid Receptor Agonism Displays Antinociception with Attenuated Adverse Effects.
The study investigates the structure-activity relationships of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine analogs, focusing on their mu opioid receptor agonism. A novel analog, 6 (SC13), demonstrated MOR-dependent analgesia in mice with reduced adverse effects compared to traditional opioids.
Hyperpigmentation From Chronic Kratom Use: A Case Report and Review of the Literature
Case report of a patient with over a decade of kratom use experiencing diffuse, photodistributed hyperpigmentation. The report includes clinical presentation, histopathological findings, and potential mechanism, along with a literature review on kratom's adverse effects.
The 730 nm Picosecond Titanium Sapphire Laser for Treatment of Kratom‐Induced Hyperpigmentation
This case series reports on the use of the 730-nm picosecond titanium-sapphire laser for treating kratom-induced hyperpigmentation, a dermatological side effect associated with the use of Mitragyna speciosa.
From kratom to 7-hydroxymitragynine: evolution of a natural remedy into a public-health threat
The paper reviews the evolution of kratom into concentrated 7-hydroxymitragynine products, highlighting their pharmacological and toxicological differences. It discusses the increased potency and risks associated with these products, including severe intoxications, fatalities, and pediatric risks.
Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Mitragynine and Corynoxeine: Kratom-Derived Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids for Pain Management
This systematic review explores the pharmacological properties, mechanisms of action, dosing considerations, interactions, and long-term effects of mitragynine and corynoxeine, alkaloids from the Southeast Asian plant Mitragyna speciosa (kratom). These compounds demonstrate significant therapeutic potential for managing diverse pain types, including cancer pain, without the adverse effects associated with traditional opioids.
An update on the clinical pharmacology of kratom: uses, abuse potential, and future considerations
This narrative review discusses the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and potential drug-drug interactions of kratom and its alkaloids. It covers the clinical pharmacology and toxicology of kratom, user surveys, and the concepts of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal associated with kratom use disorder.
Kratom safety and toxicology in the public health context: research needs to better inform regulation
This narrative review synthesizes research on kratom's benefits, risks, pharmacology, and epidemiology to inform United States-based regulation. It highlights kratom's complex pharmacology and its characterization as an opioid with potential risks for addiction or overdose. The review provides a foundation for future studies and regulatory efforts.
Kratom: History, pharmacology, current user trends, adverse health effects and potential benefits.
Narrative review of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), discussing its history, pharmacology, user trends, adverse health effects, and potential benefits. Highlights dose-dependent stimulant and opioid-like effects, use in mood and substance use disorders, and associated toxicities including hepatic, cardiac, and CNS effects. Discusses drug-drug interactions and variability in product composition.
Traditional and non-traditional uses of Mitragynine (Kratom): A survey of the literature.
The paper surveys literature on kratom use in South East Asia and the West, highlighting differences in traditional and non-traditional uses. It notes kratom's evolution to a recreational drug and reports of adverse effects in the West, contrasting with its longer history of use in South East Asia. The paper calls for more scientific studies to explore kratom's therapeutic potential.